MODULE 4

Concept 1: Heuristics & Problem-Solving


Summary:

In chapter 9, Woolfolk looks at cognitive processes and their application in supporting student learning, with special attention given to problem-solving strategies and skills. Heuristics are one such general strategy, which Woolfolk says on page 359 are important, “because many of life’s problems (careers, relationships, etc.) are not straightforward and have no algorithms.” She points out three kinds of heuristics: means-end analysis, which is used to divide problems into more manageable goals and subgoals, working-backward, which begins at the goal and moves back to the problem, and analogical thinking, which involves looking at situations similar to one’s own to appropriate solutions (Woolfolk, 2019). Heuristics are useful because they’re applicable and efficient, but Woolfolk says on page 360 that, “the price we often pay for this efficiency may be bad problem solving, which can be costly.” Automatically making judgments that draw on our immediate knowledge means that we aren’t always investigating the problem more deeply, which can lead to misunderstanding, inaccuracy, and falling into “common sense” solutions. I want to teach my students how to look at problems holistically and find real solutions, which means considering and reflecting on our automatic thought processes.


Reflection:

I found Woolfolk’s discussion of how powerful heuristics are in problem solving, but how those same strengths can become weaknesses if we’re not aware that we’re using them, to be very helpful. There isn’t anything wrong with drawing from prior experiences and our own schemas to assess problems—this is how we organize information, and how we learn—but we need to understand that we are making those automatic judgments so that we can adjust our understanding to fit a more full and accurate investigation. I think that we should always encourage our students to be reflective, to look critically at how they approach problems and what their initial thoughts are, and make it clear that forming inaccurate first impressions or predictions is perfectly fine, as long as we continue to look at the problem and ensure that we’re seeing how the problem might look apart from the heuristic lens we’re employing. This is where I really appreciated Woolfolk’s suggestions in the Guidelines section, especially her recommendation to be aware of assumptions and consider alternative possibilities, outcomes, reasons, etc. The only way that we expose our assumptions is by comparing our perspective and our ideas to others. In my classroom, I can encourage this kind of thinking by setting aside time for more informal, generative discussions where students can bounce ideas off of each other and compare ways of approaching a problem. I think that to do this effectively, I would need to slow down the pace of assignments and projects to dedicate a good chunk of time for students to get into the flow of thinking and talking, and to allow ideas to wander and then come back into focus.

Making space for generativity and community could also address the issue of confirmation bias, which Woolfolk also discusses in this section. I wish that Woolfolk would have gone into greater detail about ways that teachers can resolve this problem, because it’s a tricky issue. However, in my experience, creating space for discussion and reflection can be helpful, and consistently demonstrating open-mindedness, considering alternatives, and practicing discussing different positions without needing to resolve the discussion will support students in learning to be flexible. Woolfolk discusses some of these strategies in context of broader problem-solving, but not as methods to push back against confirmation bias and belief perseverance, and I would have liked to see the research on what has demonstrably worked. I also think that she neglected to emphasize the importance of letting go of immediate resolution, and of allowing time and space for reflection. For example, in one of my classes this semester, we’re discussing views of gender, which can be a controversial topic that many people have firmly entrenched beliefs about. However, because our discussion has been very open, and has invited a posture of questioning, looking at the data, and then considering potential solutions without the need to settle on one final resolution, I’ve seen people across the belief spectrum shifting, growing, and constructing knowledge together. I’ve noticed, too, that because these discussions are spaced out, we all have time to reflect, and each session is a little more comfortable and generative than the last. When we expose students to new ideas—especially those that challenge their existing beliefs—they need time to digest this new information without needing to defend themselves. I think that when students are forced to argue, or defend, before they have a chance to make connections and fit new perspectives into their worldview, new information becomes immediately rejected, and existing beliefs become even more firmly entrenched, even if they fly in the face of the facts. If we can create space just for wondering, without creating the impression that there needs to be an argument, or even a clear resolution, students are freer to ask questions and share ideas that they may not be sure about, without feeling like they need to change. This leads to more generative and more accurate problem-solving that embraces all of the possibilities in order to find the best one.

Concept 2: Group Work

Summary:

In chapter 10, Woolfolk dives into designing a learning environment, including implementing cooperative learning. In particular, Woolfolk discusses group work as a one form of cooperative learning, saying on page 399 that, “Group work can be useful, but true cooperative learning requires much more than simply putting students in groups and dividing up the work.” Collaboration requires an environment that is conducive to productive interaction, and where students are set up to actually work together, rather than work divergently. Woolfolk later says on page 400, “Collaborative and social skills are necessary for effective group functioning. These skills include paying attention and listening even if you don’t agree, disagreeing and sharing your ideas respectfully, taking turns, doing your fair share, working with partners even if they are not your choice…” Making sure that students know how to collaborate is essential for group work to function; if students can’t resolve disagreements, refuse to take on an equitable share of work or finish the work that they took on, or even take on all of the work instead of delegating, then they aren’t working together. This is important for teachers to understand, because setting the expectation for group work without also setting up a supportive environment is a recipe for frustration and nonproductivity.


Reflection:

I appreciated how Woolfolk touched on the social aspects of group work, but I think that she could have taken the discussion of the interpersonal aspect farther. Collaborative skills are certainly important for a functional group dynamic, but there are other social considerations as well. We, as teachers, need to understand the microsocieties that our students live in both inside and outside the classroom, and observe our classes carefully to understand those underlying dynamics. In the classroom that I observed last fall, students were put into consistent reading groups to work on small-group ELA assignments. Unfortunately, these groups did not appear to be assigned with the dispositions of the students in mind, because many of the students’ interactions with each other undermined their learning. One group was composed of three students who struggled with staying on task, and whenever they worked together, they talked, watched videos, or even brought out card games to play. Without any group members with strong self-regulation skills, or the discipline to steer the discussion back on task, the work was never finished. And because these students were all friends, even teacher redirection was less effective in making sure they were on task, because they were motivated to chat and mess around, and there was a mutual understanding within the group dynamic that this was acceptable. This is something that I’ve seen fairly frequently—even students who are perfectly capable of staying on-task on their own, and have collaborative skills, sometimes have difficulty getting the work done when they’re with some of their peers. In that same classroom, the teacher had grouped a rather sensitive, high-strung student with a boisterous, disruptive student, and an uncooperative, snide student. The result was always somewhat disastrous: the sensitive student would be upset that work wasn’t getting done, the disruptive student would feed off of her frustration and become more off-task, and even pair up with the other student to ignore her efforts, and she would become even more upset. If the teacher had attended to the social dynamics in her classroom, or even the dispositions of her students, then both of these situations could have been avoided. In my classroom, I will avoid this kind of problem by either holding off on group work until I get a feel for the class, or putting students in temporary groups to serve as a probation period before assigning year-long partners. This way, I can halt, or prevent altogether, interpersonal conflicts that disrupt the learning environment without making my intervention obvious.

I agree with Woolfolk that, although many students may dislike group work, learning to work collaboratively is an essential skill that doesn’t come naturally—I would add that even learning to work with a group that doesn’t collaborate well is an essential skill. In college classes, apprenticeships, and throughout various careers, we all have to learn how to work with others, and sometimes, the people we work with haven’t developed those skills. There have been plenty of times that I’ve worked in groups that haven’t put in the work, refused to communicate, or just left everything until the last minute. This is frustrating, certainly, but it’s also the reality of living and working with other people; the work still needs to be done, and developing effective strategies for making unideal partnerships work equips students for those inevitable situations. Working in groups also provides lower-stakes practice at collaboration; if collaboration fails, and the end product doesn’t meet a teacher’s expectations, the teacher can give grace and mitigate the damage done to the students’ grades, learning, etc. This is different from a work setting, or even a higher education setting, where there is less room for error, and the nature of a worker or students’ relationship to their supervisor doesn’t have the same care aspect. Giving students a chance to experiment, make mistakes, and learn is a valuable tool for developing a very challenging skillset, and one that they’ll need for the rest of their lives.

Concept 3: Volition and Self-Regulation

Summary:

In chapter 11, Woolfolk discusses the cognitive side of learning, including metacognitive processes that allow students to self-regulate, and student volition. On page 440 she says, “To be self-regulated learners, students need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task, strategies for learning, and the context in which they apply their learning. ‘Expert’ students know about themselves and can reflect on their own learning processes.” To understand which strategies they need to use and how they need to approach the content being learned, students need to know both what is expected of them, and their own strengths, so that they can structure their learning appropriately. Sometimes, students may encounter tasks that don’t align with their strengths, or find themselves faced with distractions. This is where volition comes in; Woolfolk says on page 441 that, “students need volition to overcome the resistance they feel when they experience a conflict between two desired outcomes…people are more likely to exercise volitional control when they have experience in sticking with tasks to reach their goals…” When students have already learned to persevere toward their goals and find success, they are more likely to replicate that success, even if it means making the choice to finish their task instead of doing something more fun. Students who self-regulate, and have volition, are able to remove themselves from even very tempting distractions to set themselves up for effective learning.



Reflection:

I found Woolfolk’s breakdown of the habits and practices that lead to self-regulation to be very insightful and very helpful. Her discussion of the importance of reflection in investigating what each student needs to be successful matched my own experiences with self-regulation. The skill is difficult to develop, because it requires honest dialogue with yourself, and making difficult choices based on that reflection. Encouraging students to ask themselves what distracts them, what keeps them from starting a study or homework session, and what motivates them to keep going even when they’re tired or stressed, will definitely help them pinpoint what they need to do to succeed. I’ve found that texting, being around others, or being in a busy space is incredibly distracting for me, and prevents me from getting into a focused mindset that leads to productivity. To keep myself on track, then, I seek out quiet, secluded spaces to work, put my phone where I can’t see it, and make sure that I’m not switching tasks or losing focus within the first few minutes—after a short period of time, I settle into the work fairly easily, and am much less easily distracted. However, some of my friends and classmates need busy, open, and public spaces to work where the presence of other people keeps them accountable, and holing up at their desks makes it impossible for them to keep themselves focused. On the other hand, I know a number of people who aren’t honest with themselves about their study habits, or who might recognize poor practices, but fail to correct them. I don’t know anyone who can watch TV or YouTube and work out algebra problems, but I know a number of people who routinely put on an episode of their favorite show while they’re trying to study or even learn new material. I think that as teachers, we can push students to be very honest with themselves about their study habits as they practice metacognition, and encourage them to switch up their study habits if they aren’t getting the results they want—even if they think that they aren’t being distracted.

Woolfolk’s comments on the way that experience bolsters volition was very thought-provoking, as it made me reflect on the way that cross-country helped me develop discipline. I ran cross-country for five years, and no matter how many seasons I’d run, it was still always a challenge to get onto the course. At every race, I was nervous and anxious because I knew that I would feel exhausted, in pain, and want to stop at some point before the finish. But as I gained more experience, I learned to focus on that finish line whenever I felt nervous—I told myself that I had run this distance before, and I could do it again. Even though I knew it would be hard, I also knew that it would eventually be over, and that the feeling of having run the race would be incredibly rewarding. This intentional reminder during the race helped me to keep going, and I found that when I acknowledged how I was feeling in the moment, compared it to how I felt at that same point in previous races, then mentally moved forward to the finish, I felt less overwhelmed. I broke down races into sections, comparing how first miles, second miles, and third miles felt to appropriately adjust my mindset; if I went too fast in the first mile, I reminded myself that I usually overestimate my pace at that stage, and if I felt like giving up on the second mile, I told myself that I had always made it through before, and I only had to hang on for the burst of energy in the last mile. Using my experience to reflect on how I was thinking, and actively shaping my mindset to reach my goals, made me a more capable and more disciplined runner, and this kind of endurance carried over into other aspects of my life. These reflections make me wonder if encouraging students to participate in sports can be a very tangible way to learn resilience and develop a sense of volition. While academic challenges certainly contributed to my self-discipline and volition, it wasn’t quite like learning to push through a physical challenge. Persevering through physical rigor requires a more holistic kind of focus, as your mind and body both need to be engaged, and sticking to it despite physical discomfort and even pain achieves a goal that somehow feels more real—you had to train for it, hurt for it, and now you can do it measurably better. I think that as a teacher, I’ll try to involve my students in sports or active clubs that will help them learn that they can go a lot farther than they can, and teach them ways to cope with stress and wanting to give up. Even if a student never finds a passion for it, or never becomes a star athlete, they can still practice persistence that overcomes mental blocks, and allows them to be active in influencing how they think or feel.